US Data Centers Consume Billions of Gallons Annually, Sparking Debate on Environmental Impact

Timothy B. Lee recently expressed surprise on social media regarding data center water usage, stating, "I was really surprised when I first saw this chart on water use by data centers. Given how much it gets discussed as a supposed problem I would have expected it to be more than this." This sentiment highlights a growing public discussion surrounding the environmental footprint of the rapidly expanding digital infrastructure, particularly its demand for water. Despite some perceptions, recent reports indicate significant water consumption by data centers, especially with the surge in artificial intelligence (AI) workloads.

Data centers utilize substantial amounts of water primarily for cooling their heat-generating servers and indirectly for the electricity generation that powers them. According to a 2024 report from the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S. data centers directly consumed an estimated 17 billion gallons of water in 2023 for cooling, with projections suggesting this could double or quadruple by 2028. An additional 211 billion gallons were indirectly consumed through electricity generation in 2023, emphasizing the broader water footprint.

Major tech companies contribute significantly to these figures; for instance, Google's global operations, including its data centers, consumed 6.4 billion gallons of water in 2023, with 95% attributed to its data centers. Meta reported 813 million gallons globally in the same year, with 95% also from data centers. These substantial volumes often lead to concerns, particularly in water-stressed regions where many new data centers are being built.

While data center water usage is considerable, comparisons to other industries provide context. Agriculture, for example, accounts for 70-80% of total water usage in many areas, dwarfing the industrial share that includes data centers. A medium-sized data center might consume around 110 million gallons annually, which can be comparable to the daily usage of a large golf course, though the societal impact and service provided differ vastly.

The increasing demand for digital services, particularly AI, is expected to further escalate water consumption. This has led to local communities raising concerns about water scarcity, with some reports noting that a single data center can use a significant portion of a city's water supply. Transparency remains a challenge, as many companies do not fully disclose their water usage, making comprehensive assessment difficult for policymakers and the public.

In response, some data center operators are investing in advanced cooling technologies, such as direct-to-chip cooling and immersion cooling, which can drastically reduce water needs. Companies like Microsoft aim for "water-positive" operations and are developing next-generation data centers designed to consume near-zero water for cooling. The industry is also adopting metrics like Water Usage Effectiveness (WUE) to measure and improve water efficiency, striving for sustainable growth amidst increasing digital demands.